AI-Policing in India- Existing Research and Where to Begin Future Research? .
Keywords:
Crime Tracking, Predictive Policing, Surveillance, Traffic Management, Law EnforcementAbstract
Automated systems in policing show its promise, with machine learning allowing early intervention for at-risk youth. Randomized trials in the US show the deterrent effects of police on crime. Autonomous robots allow closer inspection of dangerous situations, paving the way for the development of lawful artificial agents. AI Policing in India is a burgeoning field that holds immense promise in transforming traditional law enforcement practices. As artificial intelligence technologies continue to advance, their integration into policing operations has the potential to revolutionize crime prevention, detection, and investigation. This paper delves into the landscape of AI policing in India, exploring its implementation, impact on crime prevention, ethical considerations, public perception, and prospects. By delving into these facets, this article aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the evolving role of AI in shaping the future of policing in the Indian context.
References
R. Hind, S. Al Shamsi, and S. Su'aidi, "Artificial Intelligence Adoption in Predictive Policing to Predict Crime Mitigation Performance," International Journal of Sustainable Construction Engineering and Technology, 2023. https://doi.org/10.30880/ijscet.2023.14.03.025
C. Coglianese and C. Crum, "Taking Training Seriously: Human Guidance and Management-Based Regulation of Artificial Intelligence," arXiv.org, 2024. https://doi.org/10.48550/arxiv.2402.08466.
C. Fernandez-Basso, K. Gutiérrez-Batista, J. Gómez-Romero, M. D. Ruiz, and M. J. Martin-Bautista, "An AI Knowledge?Based System for Police Assistance in Crime Investigation," Expert Systems, 2024. https://doi.org/10.1111/exsy.13524.
R. S. Praveen, N. K. Gummadidala, and K. Maddulety, "Analysis of Factors Influencing the Adoption of Artificial Intelligence for Crime Management," 2020. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-64849-7_1.
B. Vermeeren, D. de Kool, and B. Steijn, "Perceived Opportunities and Challenges of Artificial Intelligence Within the Police - A Public Management Perspective," 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-42523-4_23.
O. Lunhol and P. Torhalo, "Artificial Intelligence in Law Enforcement: Current State and Development Prospects," 2024. https://doi.org/10.55295/psl.2024.ii12.
P. Asaro, "AI Ethics in Predictive Policing: From Models of Threat to an Ethics of Care," IEEE Technology and Society Magazine, 2019. https://doi.org/10.1109/MTS.2019.2915154.
S. Ramos, J. A. Pérez-López, and R. Abreu, "An Analysis of the Importance of Artificial Intelligence on the Information System of Police Forces," 2020. https://doi.org/10.23919/CISTI49556.2020.9141006.
I. M. Sunde, "AI-Based Law Enforcement Online: The Impact of the European Artificial Intelligence Act (AIA)," 2022. https://doi.org/10.15845/bjclcj.v10i2.3844.
F. Dechesne, V. Dignum, L. Zardiashvili, and J. Bieger, "Long-Term Research Strategy for Artificial Intelligence and Ethics at the Police," 2019. https://www.universiteitleiden.nl/binaries/content/assets/rechtsgeleerdheid/instituut-voor-metajuridica/artificiele-intelligentie-en-ethiek-bij-de-politie/research-strategy-ai-ethics-dutch-police-final.pdf
L. Z. Kahla, "Leveraging Artificial Intelligence for Crime Detection and Prevention," Indian Scientific Journal of Research in Engineering and Management, 2024. https://doi.org/10.55041/ijsrem34207.
T. Rademacher, "Artificial Intelligence and Law Enforcement," 2020. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-32361-5_10.
S. Raaijmakers, "Artificial Intelligence for Law Enforcement: Challenges and Opportunities," 2019. https://doi.org/10.1109/MSEC.2019.2925649.
C. H. Huang, T. C. Chou, and S. H. Wu, "Towards Convergence of AI and IoT for Smart Policing," Journal of Global Information Management, 2022. https://doi.org/10.4018/jgim.296260.
Z. J. Goldberg, "How to Conduct an Ethics Assessment of AI in Policing," 2022. https://doi.org/10.1145/3501247.3539509.
J. Dworzecki and I. Nowicka, "Artificial Intelligence (AI) and ICT-Enhanced Solutions in the Activities of Police Formations in Poland," 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-88972-2_11.
H. M. Harris, "Artificial Intelligence and Policing of Financial Crime: A Legal Analysis of the State of the Field," Law, Governance and Technology Series, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-88036-1_12.
R. P. Dempsey, J. R. Brunet, and V. Dubljevi?, "Exploring and Understanding Law Enforcement’s Relationship with Technology: A Qualitative Interview Study of Police Officers in North Carolina," Applied Sciences, 2023. https://doi.org/10.3390/app13063887.
S. Raaijmakers, "Artificial Intelligence for Law Enforcement: Challenges and Opportunities," 2019. https://doi.org/10.1109/MSEC.2019.2925649.
C. H. Huang, T. C. Huang, and S. Wu, "Towards Convergence of AI and IoT for Smart Policing," Journal of Global Information Management, 2022. https://doi.org/10.4018/jgim.296260.
Z. J. Goldberg, "How to Conduct an Ethics Assessment of AI in Policing," 2022. https://doi.org/10.1145/3501247.3539509.
J. Dworzecki and I. Nowicka, "Artificial Intelligence (AI) and ICT-Enhanced Solutions in the Activities of Police Formations in Poland," 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-88972-2_11.
H. M. Harris, "Artificial Intelligence and Policing of Financial Crime: A Legal Analysis of the State of the Field," Law, Governance and Technology Series, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-88036-1_12.
M. Caldwell, J. T. A. Andrews, T. Tanay, L. D. Griffin, "AI-Enabled Future Crime," Crime Science, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1186/S40163-020-00123-8.
X. L. Jiang, "Intelligence-Led Policing," Journal of Henan Police College, 2011.
E. Englezos, "Policing by Algorithm: NSW Police’s Suspect Target Management Plan," Alternative Law Journal, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1177/1037969x221147745.
K. J. Schiff, D. S. Schiff, I. T. Adams, J. McCrain, and S. M. Mourtgos, "Institutional Factors Driving Citizen Perceptions of AI in Government: Evidence from a Survey Experiment on Policing," Public Administration Review, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1111/puar.13754.
M. B. Goncalves, M. Anastasiadou, and V. Santos, "AI and Public Contests: A Model to Improve the Evaluation and Selection of Public Contest Candidates in the Police Force," Transforming Government: People, Process and Policy, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1108/tg-05-2022-0078.
D. Stepanenko, D. Bakhteev, and Y. Evstratova, "The Use of Artificial Intelligence Systems in Law Enforcement," 2020. https://doi.org/10.17150/2500-4255.2020.14(2).206-214.
T. W. Hung and C. P. Yen, "On the Person-Based Predictive Policing of AI," Ethics and Information Technology, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/S10676-020-09539-X.
S. Thorpe and L. Mitchell, "Towards Modelling Artificial Intelligence Parsing Documents for Cyber-Policing Data Protection and Privacy Environments Using Privacy Impact Assessments and Data Protection Impact Assessment Questionnaires," 2024. https://doi.org/10.1109/southeastcon52093.2024.10500265.
Z. Y. Xu, "The Intelligent Management System of Police Equipment Based on the Internet of Things," Applied Mechanics and Materials, 2013. https://doi.org/10.4028/WWW.SCIENTIFIC.NET/AMM.422.191.
E. Englezos, "Policing by Algorithm: NSW Police’s Suspect Target Management Plan," Alternative Law Journal, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1177/1037969x221147745.
C. Wang, X. Lei, S. Liu, and M. Ye, "Electronic Police System in Intelligent Traffic," 2022. https://doi.org/10.1109/CIS58238.2022.00039.
K. J. Schiff, D. S. Schiff, I. T. Adams, J. McCrain, and S. M. Mourtgos, "Institutional Factors Driving Citizen Perceptions of AI in Government: Evidence from a Survey Experiment on Policing," Public Administration Review, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1111/puar.13754.
K. Jackson, D. S. Schiff, I. T. Schiff, J. Adams, S. M. McCrain, and S. M. Mourtgos, "Institutional factors driving citizen perceptions of AI in government: Evidence from a survey experiment on policing," Public Administration Review, 2023, https://doi.org/10.1111/puar.13754.
M. Bailao, M. A. Goncalves, and V. Santos, "AI and public contests: A model to improve the evaluation and selection of public contest candidates in the police force," Transforming Government: People, Process and Policy, 2022, https://doi.org/10.1108/tg-05-2022-0078.
D. Stepanenko, D. Bakhteev, and Y. Evstratova, "The use of artificial intelligence systems in law enforcement," 2020, https://doi.org/10.17150/2500-4255.2020.14(2).206-214.
T.-W. Hung and C.-P. Yen, "On the person-based predictive policing of AI," Ethics and Information Technology, 2021, https://doi.org/10.1007/S10676-020-09539-X.
S. Thorpe and L. Mitchell, "Towards modeling artificial intelligence parsing documents for cyber-policing data protection and privacy environments using privacy impact assessments and data protection impact assessment questionnaires," 2024, https://doi.org/10.1109/southeastcon52093.2024.10500265.
T. Marar, "Individual police equipment management system based on the internet of things," 2022, https://doi.org/10.1109/icbaie56435.2022.9985913.
J. Loeb, "Algorithms on the beat: AI and the future of policing," Engineering & Technology, 2018, https://doi.org/10.1049/ET.2018.0401.
J. W. Brahan, K. P. Lam, H. Chan, and W. Leung, "AICAMS: Artificial intelligence crime analysis and management system," Knowledge-Based Systems, 1998, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0950-7051(98)00064-1.
J. Gonçalves, "A strategic plan to improve police response and decision-making during major incidents," 2022, https://doi.org/10.31235/osf.io/9e4ru.
S. Alzou'bi, H. Alshibl, and M. A. Al-marital, "Artificial intelligence in law enforcement: A review," International Journal on Artificial Intelligence Tools, 2014, https://doi.org/10.5121/IJAIT.2014.4401
J. D. Reddy, B. R. V. Gils, R. Dinesh, and V. R. Nellepalli, "AI-based smart traffic management," Indian Scientific Journal of Research in Engineering and Management, 2023, https://doi.org/10.55041/ijsrem24517.
E. E. Joh, "Artificial intelligence and policing: First questions," Social Science Research Network, 2018.
R. A. Berk, "Artificial intelligence, predictive policing, and risk assessment for law enforcement," Social Science Research Network, 2021, https://doi.org/10.1146/ANNUREV-CRIMINOL-051520-012342
A. Pawlicka, M. Chora?, M. Przybyszewski, L. Belmon, R. Kozik, and K. Demestichas, "Why do law enforcement agencies need AI for analyzing big data?" 2021, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-84340-3_27.
A. Babuta and M. Oswald, "Machine learning predictive algorithms and the policing of future crimes: Governance and oversight," Social Science Research Network, 2021, https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429265365-11.
J. Charles, "AI and law enforcement," IEEE Intelligent Systems & Their Applications, 1998, https://doi.org/10.1109/5254.653229.
C. Wilson, J. Dalins, and G. Rolan, "Effective, explainable and ethical: AI for law enforcement and community safety," 2020, https://doi.org/10.1109/AI4G50087.2020.9311021.
D. Delchev, "Legal aspects of artificial intelligence and its application in the work of police authorities," Law Journal of New Bulgarian University, 2022, https://doi.org/10.33919/ljnbu.22.1.4.
S. Roksandic, N. Protrka, and M. Engelhart, "Trustworthy artificial intelligence and its use by law enforcement authorities: Where do we stand?" 2022, https://doi.org/10.23919/mipro55190.2022.9803606.
M. Oswald, "A three-pillar approach to achieving trustworthy and accountable use of AI and emerging technology in policing in England and Wales: Lessons from the West Midlands model," Social Science Research Network, 2021, https://doi.org/10.2139/SSRN.3812576.
E. E. Joh, "Increasing automation in policing," Communications of The ACM, 2019, https://doi.org/10.1145/3372912.
J. Charles, "Focus: AI and law enforcement," IEEE Intelligent Systems, 1998.
C. Guevara and M. Santos, "Smart patrolling based on spatial-temporal information using machine learning," Mathematics, 2022, https://doi.org/10.3390/math10224368.
K. Blount, "Forfeiting legal protections to prevent crime," 2020, https://doi.org/10.34632/CATOLICALAWREVIEW.2020.9548.
J. M. Rodríguez-Jiménez, "An approach for the police districting problem using artificial intelligence," 2018, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-01851-1_14.
P. S. Bayerl and H. Gibson, "Safety, privacy, or both: Evaluating citizens’ perspectives around artificial intelligence use by police forces," Policing & Society, 2023, https://doi.org/10.1080/10439463.2023.2211813.
D. Marciniak, "Algorithmic policing: An exploratory study of the algorithmically mediated construction of individual risk in a UK police force," Policing & Society, 2022, https://doi.org/10.1080/10439463.2022.2144305.
K. Jones, "Managing innovation in the police service," Total Quality Management & Business Excellence, 1998, https://doi.org/10.1080/0954412989126.
A. Davies and G. Krame, "Integrating body-worn cameras, drones, and AI: A framework for enhancing police readiness and response," Policing: A Journal of Policy and Practice, 2023, https://doi.org/10.1093/police/paad083.
P. Perrot, "What about AI in criminal intelligence? From predictive policing to AI perspectives," 2017.
A. Semenihin and A. Kondrashin, "“Digital police” and artificial intelligence: Leading trends for the 21st century," 2019, https://doi.org/10.2991/ASSEHR.K.191221.199.
K. Tang, "AI in criminal law: An overview of AI applications in substantive and procedural criminal law," 2022, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-6265-523-2_11.
P. R. S. Gummadidala, N. K. Karippur, and M. K. Maddulety, "Analysis of factors influencing the adoption of artificial intelligence for crime management," 2020, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-64849-7_1.
V. Marda and S. Narayan, "Data in New Delhi's predictive policing system," 2020, https://doi.org/10.1145/3351095.3372865.
C. Cui, G. Zhou, and C. Chen, "Research on intelligent mobile police application based on 5G technology," 2022, https://doi.org/10.1109/eebda53927.2022.9744766.
